Tom Sawyer Little Rascal And Proper Southern Gentleman

Tom Sawyer: Little Rascal and Proper Southern Gentleman In The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Tom Sawyer appears in St Petersburg and at the Phelps’ farm as Huck Finn’s companion. Though Tom serves as Huck’s partner-in-crime of sorts, the two boys contrast in crucial perceptual and behavioral aspects: where Tom possesses a love for romanticism and a strict policy of adherence to societal conventions and codes, Huck possesses a skeptical sort of personality in which he tends to perceive society’s infatuations as frivolous. Tom’s presence represents an overlying trend in behavior for Mark Twain’s era wherein individuals adhere to an idealistic social code that justifies the subjugation of others for the entertainment of the privileged populus. In this regionalist critical novel, Mark Twain uses Tom Sawyer as a vehicle to reveal the dangers of an idealistic society and how idealism leads to society rationalizing its day-to-day standards; there by, its idealism serves to hide the questionable moral behaviors prevalent in Twain’s era. TOM’S WORLD In society, individuals follow a core set of ethical codes which justify certain behaviors and vilify others. Twain uses Tom’s play world as a parallel to the adult moral code of his era. Tom possesses an infatuation with adventure stories and the common traits that comprise each; his infatuation turns the principles of his books into a code of standards to which he staunchly adheres. He parallels the concept of Southern honor, the

Child Abuse Is A Serious Problem - 1495 Words

Children all around the world are going through a lot when it comes to child abuse, especially the children in the United States. According to Child Abuse Statistics (2012) more than three million reports of child abuse in the United States and these reports involves more than six million children. The United Stated have a really high number of child abuse crime compared to other countries. Every ten seconds a report of child abuse is made. The United Stated lose about four to seven children every day because of child abuse and three out of four of these children of under four year old. Child abuse is a serious problem in the United Stated and the numbers of report and death of children to child abuse increasing. Child abuse is when a parent or caregiver, whether through action or failing to act, causes injury, death, emotional harm or risk of serious harm to a child. Child abuse is describe as physical, sexual, and emotional maltreatment or neglects of a child. Physical abuse is when a parent or guardian cause physical injury/ harm to a child, which include kicking, shaking, burning, choking, biting, beating and punching. From the book Family Violence, Yuwiler said, â€Å"Abusers are manipulative and often try to make the victim feel that he or she deserves to be punished (18). â€Å" Sexual abuse is when an adult use a child for sexual purposes. Sexual abuse include unwanted touching of private parts or sexual acts. When it comes to sexual abuse, abusers make the child believeShow MoreRelatedAmericas Serious Problem of Child Abuse1080 Words   |  4 Pages A serious social problem in modern American society is child abuse. There have been widespread reports of infanticide, mutilation, abandonment, and other forms of physical and sexual violence against children (Moylan, 2010). 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More specifically, the idea of child abuse comes into play that has always been researched and focused on as a major part as to why some juveniles become involved in delinquent acts. Child abuse involves important family characteristics that affect the growth of a child and will ultimately damage them both physically and mentally. If a child is damaged at a young age, then they way they think and perceive theRead More Child Abuse and Neglect1102 Word s   |  5 Pageswhat effects abuse can have on a child? The effects abuse can have on a child is very serious. Children can obtain serious problems from child abuse. They can develop social problems, depression, and anxiety. There are four types of abuse: physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect. Physical abuse can injure a child severely. Domestic Violence is a worldwide problem and affects the health and well-being of those open to it. 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Critical Evaluation of Epidemiological Study Designs

Question: Discuss about theCritical Evaluation of Epidemiological Study Designs. Answer: Introduction Epidemiology deals with assessing the extent of occurrence of a disease in a population or different population. Often it is a part of such studies to evaluate the outcome of an exposure and its association with a disease. There are various studies that can be chosen based on the design of the experiment and hypothesis. Broadly, there are two ways an epidemiological studies ca be designed; experimental and observational. The experimental design is based on laboratory evaluations which can be carried out on experimental animals and models by exposure to factors that may influence the disease (Checkoway, Pearce, Kriebel, 2007; Savovic et al., 2012). Since this type of study design is not practical with human subjects, due to ethical reasons, we may design an experiment to observe the effect of removal or withdrawal of factors and record changes. As noted earlier, due to ethical issues design of experiments using human subjects is limited and hence most epidemiological studies are based on observation of disease occurrence in subjects already divided into groups. As for example, a data of people suffering from hepatitis can be recorded to check the possible association with liver cancer. However, there are certain limitations with observational studies as there may be a wide difference in characters and lifestyle of individuals that may attribute to the disease under investigation (Checkoway et al., 2007; Szklo Nieto, 2012; Woodward, 2013). Therefore, in broad term, epidemiological studies can be classified as intervention studies and observational studies. Intervention studies includes clinical trials and field trials whereas observational studies includes cohort studies, case-control studies, cross-sectional surveys and routine data-based studies (Von Elm et al., 2014). The essay will investigate the pros and cons of observational study designs so as to enable us to understand various epidemiological study methods and help in choosing the correct design during investigation of a problem in epidemiology research. The essay will introduce the three methods of observational studies; case-control, cross-sectional and cohort studies followed by analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of each studies. Appropriate examples will be used to further corroborate the type of research methods and strengthen the argument. At the end of the essay we expect a better understanding of study designs of epidemiology research based on observations. Observational Studies Cohort Studies In cohort studies, which is an observational design, the starting point is a careful choice of study population also known as a cohort. In the population the number of individuals exposed to the factor and those unexposed are observed. The study is carried out for a long period of time and finally outcome of the exposure to the factor is compared with unexposed group in the population. Cohort studies closely resembles intervention studies with the exception that the lifestyle and choice of subjects cannot be controlled by the investigator (Song Chung, 2010). In such studies it is of importance that the study groups are as closely similar to all factors associated with the disease. Since in cohort studies the investigator has no control over the exposure to the factor under investigation it is very likely that factors that can influence the disease other than the one being investigated may differ and hence careful means of analysis should be employed to ensure most possible even distribution of the factor under study (Szklo Nieto, 2012). One of the examples of a cohort study is the evaluation of relapse of epilepsy after surgical intervention in which 615 individuals who underwent surgery were followed up for an average of 8 years (range 1-19 years). It was found that 52% of patients remained seizure free even after 5 years of surgery and the figure went down to 47% after 10 years (de Tisi et al., 2011). The study indicated a need for devising a much effective mode of intervention. Here, a cohort study is the right choice as a follow-up of the patients were required after an intervention. In another example a risk of exposure to radiation during CT scan in children was studied for a long time and found that exposure of cumulative dose of 50Gy or more increases the risk of brain tumor and leukemia three times (Pearce et al., 2012).Cross-sectional studies or case-control studies would not have proved the result as efficient as a cohort study in the two cases. Case-Control Studies Case-control studies, in contrast to cohort studies, investigates cases of diseases and controls of it in a population and backtracks history of past exposure to the factor under investigation. This type of study design is best suited for study of cancer and rare diseases. In case an investigator used cohort for investigations of rare disease one have to wait for a significant period of time to observe a statistically significant number of rare-disease cases. Case-control studies are also suitable for investigation of diseases that has a very long incubation or induction period which may not be feasible with cohort studies (Song Chung, 2010; Szklo Nieto, 2012). This is because a significant number of subjects with the disease can be selected with appropriate controls and there is no need for a long wait for the disease to manifest as in cohort studies. The advantage of case-control studies is that a relatively small sample size can be selected for the studies compared to a large sample size and long period of study in case of cohort studies. This also makes it a preferable choice when expenditure is taken into account. On the other hand, the disadvantage of the case-control study is that the results are relatively harder to interpret. The choice of controls can lead to bias in the result as a thoroughly matched controls need to be selected. Besides the investigator cannot be sure of the prevalence of the disease before the exposure to the factor (Gallo et al., 2012). One of the examples of case-control study is an evaluation of burden and aetiology of diarrhoea in developing countries.in the study children seeking medical intervention at community hospitals due to diarrhoea were selected and compared with age and sex matched controls of the same population who do not suffer from the disease (Kotloff et al., 2013). The study found few common causative agents, control of which could reduce burden of the disease. A selection of case-control study correctly answered the research question in such cases. Cross-Sectional Studies In the cross-sectional studies, survey is the main approach. In this a sample of subjects are selected from a target population and surveyed at a particular point of time to assess exposure and outcome. The cross-sectional study selects samples that is representative of the target study population (Szklo Nieto, 2012). A careful selection is necessary in order to avoid bias of results (selection bias). In order to avoid this a random sampling approach is best suited for such studies. The cross-sectional study is employed to enumerate a common condition for a considerable duration of time (Yang et al., 2010). This study design is not suitable for cases like cancer as a large population survey may be required. However, such studies are employed to study association of HPV and cancer as there is a known risk of the virus towards cancer. Although the cross-sectional studies are easier to conduct and can be concluded in a short duration of time as estimation of factor and cause are evaluated at the same point of time it does not clearly indicate if the outcome is an actual result of the causative agent or factor as information of both is taken at the same time by a survey(Checkoway et al., 2007; Von Elm et al., 2014). In a cross-sectional investigation to correlate bone density and vertebral fracture images of CT scan and data on trabecular bone density of respective patients were used to determine relation between the two (Zebaze et al., 2010). The result indicated a statistically significant relation between trabecular bone density and risk of vertebral fracture. The choice of a cross-sectional study was appropriate for the case as the data of osteoporosis and fracture were available at the same time. A cohort and case-control study would have been possible but would require a long duration of study in case of cohort and a considerable sample size in case of a case-control evaluation. Conclusion Epidemiology involves study of different diseases in populations and may demand selective study designs for a reasonable conclusion. We have analysed different study designs employed in epidemiological studies and came to the conclusion that the choice of study design is based on the study type, hypothesis of the experiment and the nature of the disease. If a long term effect of a factor is to be evaluated a cohort study would be beneficial to generate the right answer. A case-control evaluation would determine effect of the factor on the disease under investigation in a correctly chosen sample whereas a cross-sectional study can be used when a data of effect and effector are taken at the same time. Every method of study has its pros and cons and should be considered before starting a study. References Checkoway, H., Pearce, N., Kriebel, D. (2007). Selecting appropriate study designs to address specific research questions in occupational epidemiology. Occupational and environmental medicine, 64(9), 633-638. de Tisi, J., Bell, G. S., Peacock, J. L., McEvoy, A. W., Harkness, W. F., Sander, J. W., Duncan, J. S. (2011). The long-term outcome of adult epilepsy surgery, patterns of seizure remission, and relapse: a cohort study. The lancet, 378(9800), 1388-1395. Gallo, V., Egger, M., McCormack, V., Farmer, P. B., Ioannidis, J., Kirsch-Volders, M., . . . Stromberg, U. (2012). STrengthening the Reporting of OBservational studies in EpidemiologyMolecular Epidemiology (STROBE-ME): An extension of the STROBE statement. European journal of clinical investigation, 42(1), 1-16. Kotloff, K. L., Nataro, J. P., Blackwelder, W. C., Nasrin, D., Farag, T. H., Panchalingam, S., . . . Breiman, R. F. (2013). Burden and aetiology of diarrhoeal disease in infants and young children in developing countries (the Global Enteric Multicenter Study, GEMS): a prospective, case-control study. The lancet, 382(9888), 209-222. Pearce, M. S., Salotti, J. A., Little, M. P., McHugh, K., Lee, C., Kim, K. P., . . . Craft, A. W. (2012). Radiation exposure from CT scans in childhood and subsequent risk of leukaemia and brain tumours: a retrospective cohort study. The lancet, 380(9840), 499-505. Savovic, J., Jones, H. E., Altman, D. G., Harris, R. J., Jni, P., Pildal, J., . . . Gluud, L. L. (2012). Influence of reported study design characteristics on intervention effect estimates from randomized, controlled trials. Annals of Internal Medicine, 157(6), 429-438. Song, J. W., Chung, K. C. (2010). Observational studies: cohort and case-control studies. Plastic and reconstructive surgery, 126(6), 2234. Szklo, M., Nieto, J. (2012). Epidemiology: Jones Bartlett Publishers. Von Elm, E., Altman, D. G., Egger, M., Pocock, S. J., Gtzsche, P. C., Vandenbroucke, J. P., Initiative, S. (2014). The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) Statement: guidelines for reporting observational studies. International Journal of Surgery, 12(12), 1495-1499. Woodward, M. (2013). Epidemiology: study design and data analysis: CRC press. Yang, W., Zilov, A., Soewondo, P., Bech, O. M., Sekkal, F., Home, P. D. (2010). Observational studies: going beyond the boundaries of randomized controlled trials. Diabetes research and clinical practice, 88, S3-S9. Zebaze, R. M., Ghasem-Zadeh, A., Bohte, A., Iuliano-Burns, S., Mirams, M., Price, R. I., . . . Seeman, E. (2010). Intracortical remodelling and porosity in the distal radius and post-mortem femurs of women: a cross-sectional study. The lancet, 375(9727), 1729-1736.

Leadership The Trait theories Essay Example

Leadership The Trait theories Paper Leadership is a process through which a person tries to get organizational members to do something the person desires. The leaders influence extends beyond supervisory responsibility and formal authority. Leadership theories have long sought to identify what are the characteristics that make an effective leader. In this paper, three main bodies of research and knowledge are Trait, Behaviour and Contingency approaches. The Trait theories Trait theories: leaders possess certain personal quality that leaders had to greater degree than non-leaders. Which attempted to identify the personality traits of the effective leader to facilitate the selection leader. The trait approach is based on the some assumptions: that individual is more important than situation; and leadership is inborn. Many early researchers believed that leaders such as Lincoln and Hitler had some unique set of qualities that distinguished them their followers. The trait approach seeks to identify enduring personal characteristics and traits that distinguish leaders from followers. For example: Intelligence helps a lead solve complex problems. Assertiveness helps a leader frankly express demands and attitudes and enable him to perform many tasks and achieve goals. Initiative when high, help a leader deal with many demands he faces on a day-to-day basis. Resilience, that a highly flexible in adjusting their behaviour in different situations Empathy ensures a leader putting them in the followers shoes. Drive fuels a leader to be the best of the field he chooses to pursue. Many finding illustrated that individuals who possess certain traits are more likely to become effective leaders than those who do not, . but none of traits guarantee success. We will write a custom essay sample on Leadership The Trait theories specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Leadership The Trait theories specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Leadership The Trait theories specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer , Many individuals who possess the identified traits never become leaders. Why the trait approach is not guarantee some one become effective leader? There are four reasons: it overlooks the needs of followers, it generally fails to clarity the relative importance of various traits, it doesnt separate cause from effect, and more important, it ignore the situation factors. .For instance, observations may lead one to believe that effective leaders are more likely to be assertive and outgoing, while there are outstanding leaders such as Lincoln who were relatively shy and withdrawn. Obviously, the trait approach alone cannot fully explain why or how leadership occurs. It suggests that the need to move to the other factors that contribute to leadership effectiveness. The Behaviour theories Rather than looking at the innate traits of leaders, behaviour approach argues that successful leaders can be train and teach, attention switched from selecting leaders on personality trait to training and developing leaders in appropriate behavior patterns. This research tradition argues that considerate, participative, and democratic and involving leadership behaviour is more effective than impersonal, autocratic and directive. Weaknesses of Trait and Behaviour Approaches Both trait and behaviour approach essentially ignores the situation in which leadership takes place. The trait approach takes into account leaders personal aspects but ignores the situations in which they try to lead. Certain leadership traits may lead to effective leadership in certain situations and to ineffective leadership in other situations. Dominance, for example, may make a production manager a good leader. But the same trait in the head consultant may actually detract from the leaders effectiveness because the subordinates tend to be independent thinkers who work best when they are left alone. Similarly, the behaviour approach seeks to identify the behaviours responsible for effective leadership without considering how the situation affects behaviour. However, the situation also impacts on a leaders behaviours. The performance of participants can be enhanced when the project manager engages in initiating structure by scheduling the project. In contrast, the performance of a group of assembly-line workers who know exactly how to do their jobs may be unaffected by their leaders initiating structure In fact, it became increasingly clear that the predicting of leadership success was more complex. The contingency theories suggested that leadership effectiveness was dependent on the situation and another to be able to isolate those situational conditions. that under condition a, style X would be appropriate whereas style Y would be more suitable for condition. Many developed leadership approaches in this theories such as Fiedlers models, Hersey and Blanchards situational theory and leader-member exchange theory etc. Fiedlers contingency theory acknowledges that personal characteristics influence whether leaders are effective. i. e. effective leadership requires the right behaviour, skills and attitudes. He assumed two kinds of leaders: task-oriented and relationship-oriented. Leaders who are tasked-related want their subordinates to perform at a high level and accomplish all of their assigned tasks. Their first priority is task accomplishment, and they push subordinates to make sure that the job gets done. Being concerned for the satisfactions and feelings of subordinates is their second priority. Although relationship-related leaders want their subordinates to perform at a high level, their first priority is developing good relationships with their followers. Their second priority is making sure that the job gets done. He argued that effectiveness is influenced by three sets of situational factors: 1. the extent to which the task in hand is structured. The nature of the relationships between the leader and followers; 3. the leaders position power. Fiedler identified three typical sets of conditions, then matching leaders into situations to achieve maximum leadership effectiveness. This theory has two strengths it demonstrates the importance of contextual factors in determining leader behaviour and effectiveness. ; it provides a systematic framework for developing the self-awareness of managers. : Fiedlers contingency theory is positive but weak: 1. the key variables, task structure, power and relationships, are difficult to assess. The leader who wants to rely on this framework to determine the most effective style for a given situation has to rely more on intuition than systematic analysis. 2. the concept of the least preferred co-worker is an unusual one, and it is not clear just what this measures. 3. the framework does not take into account the needs of subordinates. 4. the need for a leader to have relevant technical competence is ignored. Most contingency theories argue that leaders should change their style to fit the context, however, Fiedler argued leaders by choosing conditions in which their preferred style was most likely effective. As Hersey and Blanchards situational theory, which argues that effectiveness are reflected leaders adapt style to meet the demands of the situation in which they operate. Successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style. The model established four basic leadership styles: 1. telling ( high task-high relationship), the leader tells subordinates what , how, when, and where to do various tasks. It emphasizes directive behavior. 2. selling (high task-high relationship). The leader provides both directive behaviour and supportive behaviour. 3. participating (low task-high relationship). The leader and follower share in decision making , with the main role of the leader being facilitating and communicating. 4. delegating (low task-low relationship). The leader providers little direction or support. This theory emphasis on the need for flexibility in leadership behaviour, and in highlighting the importance of contextual factors. However, this theory has limitation that lask of evidence to support the model in practice. Daniel Goleman reported there are six leadership styles, each style relies on an aspect of emotional intelligence which concerns skill in managing your own emotions and in handing the emotions of others.